Almost 550 years ago he gave us one of the world's greatest technological inventions the printing press. His accomplishment heralded a new age of widespread literacy and communication, revolutionizing the proliferation and distribution of the written word and thus leading to the business of publishing. The unique elements of his production process remained little changed until the twentieth century.
Johannes Gensfleish, son of the General Accountant of the City of Mainz, Germany, was born towards the end of the fourteenth century, the exact year is uncertain. He is better known to us by the name Gutenberg, the original source of that name has not been discovered, one opinion is that it was his mother's family name that he adopted to prevent it passing into oblivion, since his mother was the last of her line. But it is also thought that it may have been used by earlier members of Gensfleish family, after the name of a house they owned and occupied around 1427, Mainz families were often named after houses they owned.
Very little factual information exists on his life or activities, he has been called "a shadowy figure in the pages of history". There is no biography of him from his own times and later biographies are based mainly on historical documents that make reference to him in connection with professional or legal matters. It is known that he was a silversmith and/or a goldsmith, had acquired metal-working skills and that he moved from Mainz to Strasborg about 1428 due too disputes between the city's rulers and the craftsmen's guilds of which he was a member.
He was involved in a series of business ventures in Strasborg, including gem cutting and the production of mirrors, and possibly as an instructor in those crafts. By 1448 he had returned to Mainz and continued there in business activities connected with his work in the development of the printing press that he had apparently been engaged in for several years. From evidence in court documents and records of purchases from tradesmen, he had probably commenced this work by 1436 and his purchases of lead in 1438 indicate he had been casting type, an important element of his invention. It is believed by some scholars that he may also have developed or played an important role in the development of the copper engraving process that made its appearance in the mid fourteen hundreds in Germany.
Prior to the use of the printing press, the production of written texts and documents was the work of groups of calligraphers and illuminators who laboriously copied every character by hand onto sheets of parchment, vellum or, in the later period, onto paper.
Although it had been known and used in the Far East for more than a thousand years, paper was not made in quantity in Europe until late in the 13th century when one of the first paper mills was established in Fabriano, Italy. Earlier, a few small mills of a cruder nature did exist, such as one in Spain in 1085, where the methods of paper-making were possibly introduced my the Moors. Prior to the availability of paper, the material in use was parchment, a specially treated animal skin, mainly sheep or goat, and vellum, the skin of a newborn calf, kid, or lamb. The cost of this material and the time-consuming method of copying by hand meant that there was no widespread use of books and few people could read or write. The availability of paper and Gutenberg's invention changed that. With his method, Gutenberg was able to produce about 300 printed sheets per day, an incredible output compared to the tediously hand written copies of that time.
Gutenberg's printing press was based on existing presses then in use for winemaking and simple paper-making and in bookbinding. But his great invention was his method, design, and manufacture of, moveable type. Moveable type refers to the individual alphabet characters that could be quickly assembled to form words and lines of type in a fashion that had not existed before. He developed a process of making molds and casting metal, using his own lead alloy formula, to form identical, precise, individual letters of high quality in large quantities. He also formulated an oil-based printing ink. Elsewhere, some attempts at type-making and printing had taken place, perhaps a few years earlier, such as that known in Holland but it was significantly inferior and is given less credit by scholars.
While it was little known and not used in Europe, moveable type was not new, the arts of paper-making invented in China in the 2nd century AD and versions of the printing press were well established in China, Korea, Japan, and other Asian countries. The earliest known book is the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist scripture made for free distribution in AD 868. In 1409, the first known book printed from moveable type was published in Korea and a collection of sayings of Confucius, the Chinese philosopher and teacher, had been published in book form, possibly using moveable type, in the early 14th
century. Many other instances exist from Asia but the methods for making and using moveable type were cumbersome and time consuming. A further measure of the great leap forward achieved by Gutenberg.
The Forty-Two Line Bible.
The most famous of Gutenberg's works, his masterpiece, is known as the great Gutenberg Bible, with forty-two lines of type in each of two columns per page. Published in 1455 and described by John Man in his book "Gutenberg", (MIF Books, 2002) as "a jewel of art and technology, one that emerged fully formed, of a perfection beyond anything required by its purpose". Many assisting craftsmen were probably employed in its production, however, it should be noted that, according to one commentator, Gutenberg only printed the main body of the text. The lead capitals and margins were left blank for owners to hire scribes to create the artistic flourishes that are part of the beauty of the bibles, but that may well have been for a few copies, since it is known that multiple ink applications in color were used by Gutenberg.
The forty-two lines distinguishes it from other bibles of that period, and from a thirty-six line per page work that was once attributed to Gutenberg but was later believed to perhaps be the work of a lesser printer. The forty-two line bible is also called the Mazarin Bible because the first copy mentioned by bibliographers and given widespread publicity was found in the Paris library of Cardinal Mazarin. The bible is a beautiful example of the art of the gifted typographer and printer.
Accurate figures are uncertain but it is generally accepted that about 180 copies were printed. According to a British Museum publication, 48 copies, 36 on paper and 12 on vellum, have survived and are virtually priceless but apparently, according to the Gutenberg Museum, only 22 are in perfect condition. A mint condition copy on vellum exists in the United States Library of Congress and others are held in major libraries in the United States and in other countries. In 1911, the Huntington Library acquired their imperfect vellum copy for $50,000. At a Christie's Auction in 1987 an imperfect paper copy sold for $4.9 million. There is one seemingly outrageous price cited in a 2008 pamphlet by an antiquarian bookseller in the United States that claims "An entire 1455 Gutenberg Bible would likely fetch around $100 million."
And to think that Gutenberg went bankrupt !
Described as a masterpiece, another work credited to Gutenberg is a magnificent Psalter, a large and handsome Book of Psalms, that was produced in Mainz in 1457 and bears the date of publication and the names of the publishers, Fust and Schoffer. And these names lead us to another story.
One would think that with this great invention and development, Gutenberg must have enjoyed at least a comfortable if not extravagant lifestyle but that is not so. It seems that starting a printing business was an expensive venture then just as it can be nowadays, fraught with problems and the need to obtain financing, to borrow money, as Gutenberg had to do frequently.
Documentary references to his life, show that he was constantly in debt and between 1439 and 1455 was frequently sued in court until eventually, on November 6, 1455, he faced complete financial ruin. At that date, his creditor, financial backer and partner, Johann Fust, a wealthy Mainz merchant who had first loaned him money in 1450 against the security of a mortgage against his equipment, and who provided additional financing later, won a suit against Gutenberg. Gutenberg was ordered by the court to repay 2026 guilders representing principal and interest owing. Unable to do so, his equipment, tools, and books were forfeited to satisfy the debt.
Having gained control of all of Gutenberg's equipment and of the type for the Bible and the Psalter, Fust, with the aid of Gutenberg's most able assistant, Peter Schoffer, a calligrapher and designer, was able to continue with the printing of the bibles and other works.
An unusual fact is that there is no work that actually bears Gutenberg's name. However, credit is still given to Gutenberg for the achievement because most experts agree that Fust and Schoffer alone would not have had the skills and ability to manufacture the works within the period they were produced without Gutenberg's equipment, materials, and methods at their disposal. For example, the Psalter contains hundreds of large decorative, multi-colored initials and delicate scroll borders requiring multiple inkings. The mastermind and craftsmanship is attributed to Gutenberg alone.
After his financial downfall it appears that he continued in printing and records indicate that a Dr. Konrad Humery, a Mainz advocate, apparently loaned Gutenberg printing tools and equipment. It is not certain what was produced, there is a difference of opinion on some later works said to be his.
It was in the final years of his life, perhaps partially or totally blind, that the Archbishop of Mainz, Adolph von Nassau, made him a member of the court, a tax-free sinecure that provided the destitute inventor with a yearly allowance of cloth, grain, and wine.
Gutenberg died in 1468, was buried in the church at Mainz, his work largely unknown. The church and cemetery were later destroyed, and Gutenberg's grave is lost.
His contributions to the world are beyond calculation,