The cities of the ancient Roman Empire were grand in scale and elegantly simple in design, maintaining an aesthetically pleasing ambiance that the citizens, at least the upper classes, had to have enjoyed. Scholars have debated for years as to the origins of the Roman forms of architecture and sculpture, pinpointing such cultures as the Greeks and Etruscans. Some think one or the other is the main or only influence whilst others believe that it could very well be both. Depending on where one is in the Roman Empire (Italy in particular), it is obvious that both cultures did, indeed, inspire the Romans toward one end or another. However, Greece seems to have played the larger role in the scheme of things, especially once it and the provinces of the east were assimilated.
During the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E the Greeks had spread beyond their earlier bounds of Crete, the Greek mainland, and modern-day Turkey and settled all along the Aegean coastline, building colonies in several places including Italy and Sicily. They had already established a name for themselves throughout the Mediterranean, and by the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E, they had achieved a cultural high point. The Persian Wars had been won, and Athens in particular, home of the Acropolis and Agora, was held by many outsiders and insiders alike in high regard.
It was around this period when Rome had begun to shake off Etruscan rule, developing the Republic and power all her own. The houses and temples were constructed the Etruscan way, which is what sparks part of the debate mentioned earlier, but it would not be long before the Romans came in better contact with their Greek neighbors to the south and east. After the Second Punic War which ended in 202 B.C.E, Rome became increasingly involved with Greece and the Middle East, importing art, marble and other luxuries in droves. Etruscan styles were traded for the Hellenistic, and buildings such as the Temple of Portunus began to appear, mimicking temples in Greece. The styles were still mingled, the Romans never truly and completely letting go of what the Etruscans had left them with. The Temple of Hercules at Cori is an example of this phenomenon, being built upon a podium with a broad roof (both Etruscan attributes) with Doric (Greek) columns.
Contact with the Hellenistic world inspired other things amongst the Romans than simply the style of architecture. The Greeks had been amongst the first civilizations to develop a layout for urbanization, creating particular street plans for more densely populated areas that are usually grid-like in design. Although some Etruscan towns also show this particular quality to them, Cosa and Marzabotto for instance, it is more likely that they are this way due to a military function rather than actual planning. Straight streets are more easily maneuvered than winding ones, and other towns built by the Etruscans have a more chaotic appearance to them. It is as if they were enlarged as the population grew, accommodating however necessary at the time of need, rather than being systematically planned out. Greek settlements are almost all constructed in rectangular blocks with straight streets. The problem encountered here, however, is that it is extremely hard to date exactly when the Greeks began to build their cities in such a way, so it is unknown which group the Romans originally took after.
The period of the rule of Augustus shows most vividly how Hellenistic styles integrated themselves into the Roman material culture. The discovery of marble in the north of Italy meant that the stone no longer had to be imported from Greece making it much less expensive. In consequence, Augustus practically rebuilt Rome, adding such buildings as his own Forum, the Ara Pacis, and numerous sculptures and statues like the Augustus Primaporta.
The Augustan Forum in particular simply radiates Greek influence. The colonnades along both sides of the structure are supported by Corinthian columns on the lower level and Caryatids along the upper level. The latter, a series of sculpted pillars carved to look just like young women, is modeled directly after the Erechthium at the Athenian Acropolis. One would think a Greek sculptor had fashioned them, as was common for much of the artwork done at the time, but one of the statues is signed, Caius Vibius Maximus, which is not a Greek name at all. This brings forth the possibility, as turns out to be the case, that Roman artists were being trained in the Greek methods and applying them.
Portraiture during the Augustan Period and even before is most assuredly influenced by the Hellenistic style. As a matter of fact, many busts were commissioned by Romans to be carved by Greek artists. Such a practice continued well into the Imperial age, spurred mainly by Augustus and the general tastes of the Romans. Even though several Roman artists tried their hands at the art, their works still displayed the unavoidable Greek characteristics of deeply furrowed brows and lined faces that perhaps tried to show the wisdom that comes with age. Augustus, however, never had himself carved as an older man but one perpetually in his twenties or thirties. This is atypical of the Greek style, but nevertheless it is shown through other means. The Augustus Primaporta, as an example, is positioned almost exactly like the Doryphorus from his stance to the bending of his knees and feet.
The emperor, Hadrian, was another to promote the Greek modes of art, but for him it all seems to be under different circumstances. While Augustus reigned, Greece was still prominent within the cultural scene, its sculpture and architecture exported all over the known world from the Middle East to what is now France and Spain and northern Africa. Hadrian, governing Rome over a century later, seemed to be trying to cling to the Hellenistic past with his commissions, such works as the Pantheon in Rome, the bust of Antinous, and the statue of Hermes that now stands in the Vatican.
In the early stages of Roman development, the Etruscans did, indeed, have quite an influence upon the styles of architecture as some scholars argue. Despite, as the city grew and expanded its borders into a massive empire, acquiring new knowledge of what lay in the world beyond, the Greeks played an even larger role in the culture of the Roman people by contributing an art form that would be used for centuries afterwards.
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The following bibliography is divided into two parts: the first is the list of sources used within the main body of the essay; the second lists sources that may or may not have been consulted but are still useful for further reading or simply finding pictures of particular monuments pertinent to the subject matter. Everything is listed alphabetically.
Works Cited:
Brilliant, Richard. Commentaries on Roman Art: Selected Studies. London: Pindar Press, 1994.
~This collection of essays is useful for a great many topics in Classical history that deal with Roman art more or less specifically.
Grant, Michael. Art in the Roman Empire. London: Routledge, 1995
~Grant provides a brief yet useful overview of all the areas of Roman art from Imperial portraits to Christian architecture. Black and white photographs.
Sear, Frank. Roman Architecture. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982.
~An excellent source for the subject matter that includes illustrations of monuments, floor plans, particular carved designs and city layouts. Contains a glossary.
Schoder, Raymond V. Masterpieces of Greek Art, 3rd ed. Chicago: Ares Publishers, Inc. 1975.
~The beginning of this book contains a brief but decent history of the Greek culture, though a bit out-dated. The remainder is a collection of full-color photo plates of both Greek and Roman art with short descriptions of the images on the facing page.
Ward-Perkins, J.B. Studies in Roman and Early Christian Architecture. London: Pindar Press, 1994.
~Like Sear's publication listed earlier, this book gives an excellent history of the Roman Empire from an architectural perspective with a number of black and white photographs and floor plans and city layouts.
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For Further Information:
Cook, R.M. Greek Art: Its Development, Character and Influence. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1973.
~The entire book is an analytical view on the methods of the different forms of Greek art: pottery, painting, sculpture, metalworking, coinage and gems, architecture, and interior decoration. Cook provides several black and white photo plates for reference.
Fairbanks, Arthur. Greek Art: The Basis of Later European Art. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, Inc. 1963
~Fairbanks presents a short but informative book on how the Greeks have managed to inspire art and sculpture both in Rome and more modern times. Black and white photo plates of several statues.
Ferris, I.M. Enemies of Rome: Barbarians through Roman Eyes. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000.
~This book looks at the expansion of the Roman Empire and the Roman view of the barbarians with a particular focus upon how outsiders were portrayed in art/sculpture. Chapter One goes on at length about how both the Greeks and the Romans saw their neighbors, especially the Gauls. Good black and white photographs.
Hannestad, Niels. Roman Art and Imperial Policy. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1988.
~ This is a good overview of the periods of Roman art from the Republic through the Dominate that focuses on several specific pieces (ex. Arringatore, Augustus Primaporta) complete with plenty of satisfactory black and white photographs.
Hellenism. 1911 Edition Encyclopedia. March 2004. http://14.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HELLENISM.htm
~De spite the strange syntax errors, this is a very useful site that's full of information on Hellenism in general along with its role in the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures.
Roman Architecture in the City of Rome. March 2004. http://harpy.uccs.edu/roman/html/romarch.html
~This simple website is good for pictures of a few major monuments in the city of Rome.
Sparkes, Brian A. Greek Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
~This book focuses primarily on Greek sculpture and pottery in the sixth through fourth centuries B.C.E. Contains a few full-color plates and black and white photographs of various statues, monuments and ceramics.
Winn, Myrle. The Impact of Hellenism on Rome. March 2004. http://members.tripod.com/~Kekrops/Hellenistic_Files /Impact_On_Rome.html
~A well-researched article on how Hellenism spread throughout the Mediterranean, particularly into Rome.