THE INTEGRATION OF THE FIELD OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
WITHIN EXECUTIVE COACHING AS IT PERTAINS TO CLIENT SELF-PERCEPTIONS
What is Psychological Coaching
It is the basic belief that therapy as we know it began in what we know call career counseling (Lara, 2005). In his writings for the International Journal for Coaching in Organizations, Patrick Williams notes that coaching and therapy both come from the same foundational "roots", and that it was Maslow's work (hierarchy of needs) that changed the way people interact in their own destiny. Williams actually credits Maslow's work "with providing the framework for modern life coaching as it is practiced today" (p. 1). The end result of this is that coaching has presented itself in a new way, and has broken off into several directions, with career and life coaching being at the top of the list, followed by management coaching, which is usually supplied to managers through their organization (Levinsky, 2000). All levels of coaching claim to be able to help people improve themselves in order to reach the goals they could not otherwise reach without the help of a coach. However, there are two basic forms of coaching that have evolved from this trend, which are "executive coaching", a more one on one approach, and "management coaching", which views coaching as a set of day-today skills exercised by managers at all levels of the organization" (Peltier, p. xv).
Executive coaching today has its roots in many educational and counseling disciplines. A coach is one that incorporates many aspects of psychology, such as testing, assessment, mentor training and other methods within the behavioral sciences to help their clients reach new levels of performance. The big problem with all of this is that many coaches are not trained in any field of psychology or psychotherapy, which has raised the red flag as to the ethical ramifications of these coaching practices. The big questions are now popping up, such as what criteria should those calling themselves coaches adhere to and should there be legislation, and possibly even licensure, required. The concerns have become so prevalent in the field of psychology that those within the APA are considering incorporating the field of I/O Psychology into their 2014 ethics code.
At this time there are no clear cut specifications for coaches, nor do any exist in the current APA code of ethics. The same is true for those practicing the field of I/O Psychology, although many now entering the field do have degrees in I/O Psychology. This has mainly to do with the fact that it is a new and changing field, and the APA is having to change along with it, although sometimes behind the wheel. At this point it is really only a guideline that those in the field of I/O psychology might look to for guidance and ethical decision making, but they are not required to adhere to it or any specific criteria for practice. As a result there is talk of new criteria and legislation that will require anyone practicing coaching or I/O Psychology to adhere to ethics standards as is the case with other fields of psychology.
However, as mentioned prior, there is a large push to include I/O Psychology as part of the APA. In response to this, Division 14 of the APA was established to begin including this field of I/O Psychology as part of the association. A clear definition of the field is beginning to emerge, with the University of Waterloo (2007) creating a very clear description of the characteristics of the field of I/O Psychology. Their interpretation of the field is:
Industrial Organizational Psychologists are versatile behavioral scientist specializing in human behavior in the work place. Industrial-Organizational (called I-O) Psychologists recognize the interdependence of individuals, organizations, and society, and they recognize the impact of factors such as increasing government influences, growing consumer awareness, skill shortages, and the changing nature of the workforce. I-O Psychologists facilitate responses to issues and problems involving people at work by serving as advisors and catalysts for business, industry, labor, public, academic, community, and health organizations. They are Scientists who derive principles of individual, group, and organizational behavior through research; Consultants and staff psychologists who develop scientific knowledge and apply it to the solution of problems at work; and Teachers who train in the research and application of Industrial-Organizational Psychology.
The new self-empowerment movement and the desire for self-help fixes within our society have driven much of this trend. A person can find a person to coach them through just about any situation as well as a book or system to also work them through it. People can now find a coach to work them through personal issues as well as career and education issues, with many trained coaches understanding an using an 8 point psychological coaching schematic (Auerbach, 2001) . In addition, the trend seems to be leaning more toward career counseling, which Savickas (2003) cites is the result of " the mechanical age of the city is giving way to the media age of the global village as information technology fosters a worldwide economy, the emergence of world workers, and new psychological contracts between employers and employees" (p.1). The result is a fast and changing world with people trying desperately to stay in the game, and coaching is a new way for people to do just that.
How Social Psychology Is Integrated Into Psychological Coaching
How people interact and influence one another is at the crux of social psychology. Since people do not interact alone, "the topics of social psychology are directly relevant to executive coaching and the process of interpersonal influence" (Peltier, 2001, p. 136). Psychological coaching is an important part of the social networks within an organization, and on a personal level. It is not uncommon any longer to find coaches woven within the structural fabric of an organization, mainly because organizations understand the important social currents that flow within their cultures and see coaching as a necessary means to maintain their culture as well as their competitive edge (Bratton, 2004). Social psychology has always looked closely at the study of leadership. And organizations now understand their employees on all levels, executives included, are human and have the same human foibles, and sometimes need help to overcome these obstacles while at the same time feeling safe to be vulnerable in an often time competitive environment (Peltier, 2001, Sandlund, 2002). Research has shown that the presence of coaching within an organization can have impressive results, as cited by Bratton (2004):
Properly delivered, coaching can help us understand what we are truly good at and how we can use our abilities to strengthen organizational culture and address change. It provides in-depth solutions that no classroom or seminar can offer. In fact, no conventional form of learning has shown a comparable capability to help people make profound and difficult changes in the way they approach their work and their life, and to make those changes last. Most urgently of all, coaching responds to the intense need for renewal in the ranks of senior leaders and managers. It accelerates the growth in effectiveness of supervisors, and the impact of these personal transformations ripples outward to affect all levels of management and employees. The benefits are often dramatic, improving teamwork, productivity, profitability, and the quality of work and life.
The field of social psychology is deeply rooted in psychological coaching because of its focus on human behavior, and specifically, the study of human behavior in groups. Because nobody works alone and they have no choice but to interact with a world full of people and social constructs, their style of interaction and coping is often the focus of the work of a psychological coach. Most times the unconscious mind is at work driving our behaviors and perceptions, and are often producing defense mechanisms, which is the most "durable legacy of Freud's work and proves that we have many ways to protect our ego or sense of self" (Peltier, 2001, p. 26).
The work of a coach, and particularly a psychological coach, is to help uncover and bring to the surface (cognitive level) those unconscious psychological processes, and produce an awareness of these hidden defense mechanisms that may be standing in the way of their goals and producing undesirable results (Peltier, 2001). This can be particularly important within a superior subordinate relationship where social rules, especially those related to gender, can influence behavior and self evaluation and impact effect effectiveness (Wilson, Lizzio, Zauner & Gallios, 2001). Helping clients' deal with their social environments is an important part of coaching, and the main steps used are based on the work of Kurt Lewin, as cited by Peltier (2001), who believed that a person's behavior is a direct response to their social environment. These steps are 1) identify the problem, 2) gather data and analyze it, 3) make an action plan, 4) implement the plan, 5) collect more data monitor the situation to evaluate how you are doing and 5) problem redefinition.
However, this will not work well in on an organizational level if those being coached within the organization do not feel safe to be real and therefore ending up giving the answers they think the organization wants to hear over the truth (Sandlund, 2002). However, if employees, particularly those on the executive levels, feel safe to admit their weaknesses and be coached, they can make huge strides to overcome those weaknesses and produce tremendous results for an organization (Sandlund, 2002). This also plays into another theory of social psychology known as Cognitive Dissonance Theory, which states that human need to feel "consistent" if they are to feel good, and it is the uncomfortable state of feeling inconsistent that creates dissonance, and drives a change in behavior (Peltier, 2001).
Before we look at how a coach uses the study of social psychology in their work, we must first define the field of social psychology on a deeper level and the social elements a coach is required to understand. The study of social psychology is considered a science because it employs the same scientific methods used in any science, and therefore the work of a successful coach must revolve around these methods. The main focus of the field is to study how "individuals think, feel and behave in regards to other people and how individual's thoughts, feelings and behaviors are affected by other people" (Brehm, Kassin & Fein, 2005, p.5). Understanding not only the psychological dynamics of their client on an individual is only the first aspect of a coach's job. A good coach also understands the basic foundations of social psychology in order to understand the environment in which their client works and is influenced as well as their interaction and influence within that group.
As noted before in this section, the work of a psychological coach is to make a client self aware of the defense mechanisms and perceptions that may be holding them back both personally and within their social groups. This is really not much different than the work of any therapist however the focus is usually more defined to life goals and/or career goals. Many of the defense mechanisms faced by a psychological therapists are termed "adaptive mechanisms" and come in the form of altruism, sublimation, humor, substitution, compensation, rituals, identification, and affiliation (Peltier, 2001). These can be most prevalent in organizational social networks, where research suggests that people perform on different levels depending on the social network in which they belong within an organization or group (Mehra, Kilduff & Brass, 2001).
Altruistic behaviors are the result of our motivation to help others, and a lack of it is the result of a desire to look after one's own welfare (Brehm, Kassin & Fein, 20001), and can be a challenge to a coach who may be working with a person who has the tendency to give too much of themselves or be narcissistic in nature. The motivation to take one's uncomfortable emotional feelings and use them to so something socially acceptable is at the foundation of sublimation, and is often something a coach needs to pay attention to, particularly in the case of a workaholic client. Humor is another way people deal with feelings and emotions that are too frightening to face, but it can easily become too aggressive and cause problems within a social group if it is deemed sarcastic or harassing.
The use of substitution is a way in which people avoid doing something uncomfortable, such as substituting doing one project over another that they cannot deal with. This can cause serious problems to a client in relation to meeting goals and overcoming fears, and can be a challenge for a coach in terms of helping a client perform the tasks they may feel they cannot do, and must be overcome if they are going to successfully be at the top of their game (Sandlund, 2002). Performing rituals is another way people try to deal with uncomfortable feelings of anxiety and fear, and although they can be productive in terms of getting things done, a client may be stuck in a pattern of repetition and not be moving forward in their process, which can require a coach's intervention to move beyond these patterns.
Identification is a means of dealing with deep feelings of inadequacy and inferiority, and is seen generally in a person immersing themselves in a corporate culture or particular person within that organization. This can be a challenge to a coach because the person generally is not comfortable facing the areas where they feel inadequate, and doing so can be scary and produce severe anxiety. A coach must be careful in situations like these, and may often times need to refer a client to a psychologist if the anxiety becomes too painful for the client. The flip side of identification is affiliation, which is a way people avoid the same uncomfortable emotions by looking to others to commiserate and support them through the painful emotions. Coaches can be extremely important for people stuck in this stage, and through their supportive behavior, help move them through the tough emotions an on to change and healing.
There are also defense mechanisms that help a person deny aspects of a social situation or their lives that may appear to scary or threatening to face. These mechanisms generally come in the form of denial, repression and isolation (Peltier, 2001). We have all experienced the results of out denial, which s basically a way we unconsciously avoid facing something we know to be true. A coach's job is to carefully help a person face these things and help them reach their goals. Within social groups, specifically in an organization because "entire organizations can indulge in group denial, especially if things are going poorly or if there is a huge looming crisis and no one has the answer. Coaches can often spot the denial before others in the organization, and sometimes they are in the good position to point it out" (Peltier, 2001, p. 29). Of course this requires knowing how and when to best bring these patterns of denial to light. Primarily because organizations are not much different than people individually, and uncovering the denial too soon might cause pain an organization may not be ready to handle, which could cause problems for the coach within the organization.
Repression is considered on the extreme side of the denial scale, and happens when a person completely blocks a thought, behavior or thinking pattern from their minds, or in essence, reality. This can be hard for a coach who might find themselves with a client who refuses to acknowledge or accept something that is clearly rooted in reality, but they will not accept it as truth. Often times these clients are holding off something that is too painful, and it can also be seen in the behaviors of those with borderline or other behavioral disorders. In terms of an organization or social group, it can be seen in topics that everyone is told clearly are "off-limits for discussion" (Peltier, 2001, p. 30). As stated before, this is where the savvy of a coach must come in if positive results are to come from exposing these behaviors.
Isolation is commonly seen in the behavior of people both personally and within groups. It can be something that can protect a person in times of danger, but it can also be something that stops people from moving toward their goals. Of a person has developed patterns of isolating themselves rather than risk rejection or ridicule, they may never try and eventually find themselves frustrated because they are overlooked within the group or they are not reaching their personal and professional goals. The role of the coach in this situation is to first determine if their client's pattern of isolation is on a healthy level or if it is hindering them, and then help them move through their fear to their goals.
The most difficult defense mechanisms to treat and work with as a psychological coach, and as a therapist in general, are those defense mechanisms that are not rooted in reality, but instead distort reality. These mechanisms are generally seen in the form of rationalization, intellectualization and projection. Rationalization is seen regularly and is how people change their feelings about something by using rational thought processes. This can be dangerous because it causes people, and organizations, to deny the results of a situation, which never really goes away and can resurface.
When a person or organization intellectualizes their feelings about a situation, they are in essence using arguments to ignore the painful emotions they are experiencing, and stuffing them, also known as having a stiff upper lip. This too can comeback in the form of other behaviors if unresolved. Finally, projection is when a person or organization cannot face their feelings or the reality of a situation and they put it on others, such as putting a failure on another rather than taking responsibility for it. A coach dealing with a situation must often times expose these behaviors and place responsibility back where it belongs if their client is going to move ahead in their process.
The most frustrating of these are those defense mechanisms that results in people acting out of character of in ways they generally would not. These come in the form of reaction formation, help-rejecting complaining, displacement, regression, conversion, passive aggression and provocative behavior (Peltier, 2001). Because these behaviors have their root in deep deception, these behaviors can have serious ramifications within a group setting, and can actually result in a very unhealthy organizational culture if ignored, particularly when perpetrated by those in higher authority executive levels. One example would be reaction formation, where a person dealings with an uncomfortable feeling or emotion by behaving in an opposite manner, which is in essence lying.
Help-rejecting complaining is the result of a person covering up deep hostility by putting people in no-win situations. They might ask for help or request things that they no are impossible to accomplish or deliver, thus putting others in situations to fail or become frustrated, even experiencing feelings of inadequacy themselves as a result. This is often seen in people suffering from personality disorders, but can become very serious for those in leadership situations and who supervise groups of people. The results can be in the form of HR complaints, low productivity within their department and problems with upper management. A coach who finds themselves working with a person of this type must be careful not to fall into the same no-win trap that others find themselves in when dealing with a situation or person like this, and often times, unless a person or culture really wants to change, this can be an impossible thing to work through (Sansone & Sansone, 1991). It may often times require a coach to refer a client to a personal therapist before they can help them further.
Displacement is when a person transfers their aggression and hostile feelings on others. This can be especially a problem for an executive who abuses and/or bullies subordinates because they can rather than dealing with their own hostility. As stated before, the results can be HR complaints and possibly losing their jobs. In an organization, it can result in large overturns in staff and liability due to HR issues. A coach faced with this must be able to address the destructive behavior and help the person(s) involved the serious nature of it. In addition, they must be able to help those involved learn ways to work through their frustrations and hostility in the right way and place it where it belong, and not on others.
Regression is the result serious pressure and a person's anxiety level causes them to act immaturely and return to behaviors they normally would not. A coach might see this with a client who suddenly begins acting childish or as a teenager again, which results in them sabotaging their progress. Within an organization or social group, people might become childish in their dealings with one another and resorting to adolescent ways of dealing with internal stress. Conversion is a "physical response" to stress and is a means of dealing with uncomfortable emotions. This can come in the form of illness when impending stress is on the horizon, which can have serious results in a social organizational group setting where missing work is not acceptable and viewed as weak.
Passive aggressive behavior can be very damaging to a person or organization because of its dishonest nature. In essence, it is a way for a person to express their anger and hostility, but in a backwards and dishonest way, by "behaving in passive ways that have the effect of being aggressive or negative" (Peltier, 2001, p.31). This is a way of expressing anger without taking blame for it, and is usually done when it is perceived that being honest about out feelings is not acceptable. Women can display this more often where aggressive behavior is females frowned upon and where it is deemed socially acceptable for males (Wilson, Lizzio, Zauner & Gallois, 2001).
Gianakos (2002) further expounds on this by citing that "to succeed professionally, females may need to exhibit hardiness, independence, and resilience to cope with pressures in the workplace, but in doing so, they risk a loss of social support, evidenced by both increased isolation and increased likelihood of internalizing failures", while men generally feel more accepted than women in an organization's social structure (p. 1). On a personal level, a person can experience anxiety over unresolved emotions, but also feel frustrated because they do not understand why others cannot trust them. In a social setting, people do not trust one another and serious damage can occur to a culture. A good coach understands the destructive nature of passive aggressive behaviors and can expose them in a way that can help others to see the destructiveness of them and develop new ways of dealing with them.
Provocative behavior can have very damaging results for a person and within a social group or organization, particularly where gender is concerned, which is still a huge variable in social behavior within organizations (Wilson, Lizzio, Zauner & Gallois, 2001). Peltier (2001) cites that it is usually seen in adolescents who struggling with their identity, but it can be seen in adults who might be suffering through a stage of development and are using this defense as a way to deal with the difficult emotions associated with the process. "It is a way to express hostility without feeling guilty about it" and one "simply behaves in a way that provokes the other person to behave poorly so that they can (justifiably) retaliate" (Peltier, 2001, p. 32). The downside of this behavior for a coach is that they may be dealing with a person who has suffered serious problems from this behavior and lost jobs or has not met their goals in life because of it. This is especially true for women, who are often times experience more social expectations than men within organizational social groups (Wilson, Lizzio, Zauner & Gallois, 2001). In a group setting, a person using this form of denial can cause serious problems within a department and eventually turn everyone against them.
It is imperative that a psychological coach first understand how all of these mechanisms work if they are going to be successful in helping their clients move past their personal and social roadblocks and move to the next level. In addition, it is important that a coach knows how to navigate through these defenses simply because they are defenses in the first place and are a means of protection for a client (Peltier, 2001). This is where a coach's ability to carefully communicate to their client is so important because it brings down the defenses and builds trust. Because trust is the foundation of any good relationship, a good coach can communicate in ways that fosters trust and then is able to help bring down and draw attention to the behaviors that may be hindering them or causing problems in their lives, both personally and socially.
It is also important to note that defense mechanisms are not "exclusively intrapersonal", they can also be found in the cultures (groups) of companies and organizations, and are used for the same reasons people use them individually, which is to fend off impending threats and to "reduce uncertainty and to handle uncomfortable feelings of inadequacy, intimacy, and dependency. Sometimes a corporate culture is organized to protect against the uncomfortable feelings its members resist" (Peltier, p.33). On a social level, these defensive behaviors can be seen in the ways executives differentiate themselves from others in their organizations, such as office location, producing bureaucracy roadblocks, their willingness to interact and be available to others, and most importantly, their communication and interpersonal skills within the organization. In situations such as these, "coaches are of great importance in the modern, fast-moving organization, because they can help people develop adaptive social skills" (Peltier, 2001, p.33).
Understanding family dynamics, another aspect of social psychology, is important for psychological coaches to understand if they are going to understand the behaviors of their clients. A good coach needs to gather some information about their client's family or origin and their interactions within their "surrounding social and cultural forces" if they are going to understand why they behave they way that they do and how they connect to the world around them, particularly in their social situations (Berger, 2004, p.45). If the coach can understand how their client modeled themselves within their social networks, as well as how they were conditioned, they can then begin working within those confines and introducing possible ways to change. Often times a person might be stuck in a specific behavior because of faulty messages they may have received during their developmental years, and the coach can help them develop new ways of relating in their social groups in order to reach their personal and professional goals.
Applying Psychology Methods in Psychological Coaching
As with any scientific method, the methods used in social psychology are the same, and always begin with a question in mind that needs to be answered (Brehm, Kassin & Fein, 20001). Through the use of basic research, hypothesis are tested and theories are organized to produce models and methods of treatment, and they are measured for reliability and validity. Many of these same scientific principles, methods and models can be used in the field pf psychological coaching and used to analyze the progress and results of a coach's clients. Of course, clients should always be aware of their rights, and signed agreements and consent exercised before the coaching should go further.
This is especially important due to the ethical issues facing coaches where many consultants are claiming to be executive coaches without training and where many psychotherapists who have no business training are claiming the same thing (Goldsmith, 2003). Many of these models and methods must be reviewed and tested, which is why training is so important. Once example would be the reliability of a test based on gender differences, where current research suggests that there are profound differences in the way genders interpret information, specifically in relation to norms and stereotypes, in addition to self-efficacy factors (Rottinghaus, Gaffey, Borgen & Ralston, 2006). A good coach needs to be able to review test results against variables and sound scientific practice to determine if the results are receiving are fair and accurate across the populations they are researching (Hegarty & Pratto, 2004). Specifically in terms of diversity, where there are often times where a group(s) is "underrepresented" in relation to the latest career counseling methods and literature (Luzzo & MacGregor, 2001).
A number of proven models and methods in the field of psychology are now being used in the field of psychological coaching. Many of these methods find their roots in psychological behaviorist theory, cognitive theory and psychoanalytical theory. From these theories come the behavioral concepts, person centered approaches and cognitive therapy practices often used in psychological coaching methods. Family therapy methods are also used by coaches as they look into the family history and family dynamics to help understand and solve many of the problems plaguing their clients (Peltier, 2001). Two commonly used methods are the CAAACS Method and the Prochaska Method, both of which use six stages, or processes, to coach a person (Auerbach, 2001).
Most coaches would actually use a combination of these methods to address the problem, which in essence would become my own method. By combining methods, or models, with similar approaches, one can better get the results they need, which are to keep a client calm, focused, to stay persistent, maintain perspective and become be confident (Michelozzi, Surrell & Cobez, 2004). The reason for this is that various methods, or models, have strong points and weak points as well as similar variables used, and by combining the approaches of various models, a coach can create better quality (Martin, 2007, p.3). Of course the methods need to be similar and not mutually exclusive to on another, and the model-dependent and model-independent factors must first be determined to verify that they can work together (Davis & Piercy, 2007).
Davis and Piercy (2007) cite that ""in their natural clinical form, there is considerable overlap among the major models of therapy", therefore different models can be used depending on the situation and what you are trying to achieve (p. 1). However, this does not mean that one model is good for all situations, and another important thing to keep in mind when using any model are the ethical and moral issues associated with using them. Coaches must always be careful to take all things into consideration, particularly the potential to harm, when they use any model, and they must ask the question whether "the model flexible enough to find use with diverse cultures" (Davis & Piercy, 2007, p.22). If at any time a coach does not feel that a model works or is a fair representation within the group or with the person they are trying to coach, than they should scrap it. That is true for all subfields of psychology, or in any situation where a model is being used.
The CAAACS method "organizes the coaching process into six elements", which are 1) connection, 2) assessment, 3) articulation, 4) action, 5) commitment and 6) support (Auerbach, 2001, p. 32). Each of these organized processes is actually a stage that a person goes through in the coaching process. Much like this, the Prochaska model, or method, uses stages as well to break down the processes. Each of these stages is defined as actual "stages of change", and as with CAAACS, must be processed through to get to the next stage, with these stages being defined as 1), precontemplation, 2) contemplation, 3) preparation, 4) action, 5) maintenance and 6) termination (Prochaska & Norcross, 2001). Both the CAAACS and Prochaska methods have these similarities, which are six stages, and it is believed that they can be combined successfully to develop a practitioners own method of coaching.
One example would be working with a client who wants to change from a very demanding, yet rewarding career, and move into something that they feel they would enjoy more, and would be less demanding on their family. Because they are not clear as to what direction they are going, applying carious aspects of these methods would be extremely helpful in helping them figure out where they is going as well as find the best fit for them. A good coach would have to walk them through each stage of change in order to help them understand, articulate and see their vision for their life. From there, they could help them determine a game plan and develop strategies for reaching those goals. A coach could then work with them on a regular basis to monitor their progress and see how she is doing. Once successful, they could either end or continue the coaching relationship depending on the clients needs.
Before reaching a coach, the client would have already begin the precontemplation and possibly the contemplation stages of the Prochaska method, and which would have brought them to meeting with a coach. CAAACS starts with making a connection, which is always the first step in the coaching relationship. A coach first need to develop a trust based foundation before their client would begin to trust their abilities to coach them successfully. The assessment and articulation stages in CAAACS are much the same as the preparation stage of Prochaska, so a coach could combine them to include their version of assessing a new clients needs, helping them articulate clearly what they want, the challenges and the goals for getting there and getting prepared to reach those goals. This is usually where much of a coach's homework assignments, personality assessments and meetings come in, and they are very helpful in getting a clear plan for both the coach and the client.
The action element of both models is clear, and that is the stage where a client will actually put into action those things that we have identified together in out plan (strategies). This is usually the stage where a coach finds their clients can become very discouraged, and where the commitment, support and maintenance stages of these models come into play. As a client is "working their program", the coach is on the sidelines encouraging them, giving them guidance and helping them stay focused on their goals and the tasks at hand. These stages can be short lived or can take quite sometime depending on the client and the situation they are working in. As they process through these stages, it is the coaches job to not let them waiver or fall, and to pick them up when they feel they cannot go on.
At the end of the contracted time, in most cases 2 years, clients and coaches do terminate the relationship if need be, as in stage six of the Prochaska method. By then most clients are usually well on their way to what they wanted to achieve and have made great progress. Sometimes clients decide they want to extend the contract and are not ready to end the coaching relationship, which is fine as well. The coaches goal is to always end that relationship on a positive note and leave the client feeling good about what they have achieved and the experience overall. Of course this is not always possible with people who are just not able to take responsibility for their lives, but that is rare and the outcomes are usually great.
In conclusion, the field of psychological coaching is on the rise within our society today. More and more people claiming to be trained coaches are popping up in an effort to feed the appetite of those embracing the self help movement. In addition, increasing pressures to produce and stay in the game are fueling the fire as well, as more and more people employ the help of coaches for both personal and professional reasons. The impact of this is that there are ethical questions in relation to training and expertise for coaches and possible legislation in the future aimed at protecting society from harm at the hands of untrained coaches (Goldsmith, 2003).
Peltier (2001) cites that "social psychology research makes it quite clear that the situation is more influential than personal qualities or individual character" (p. 152). Social psychology methods also have their place in coaching as many of the theories studies in the field of social psychology are applied to a coach's work. Specifically in relation to organizational structure and a client's ability to work well within the groups they are involved. This can translate over into working groups as well as outside social groups, and how a client interacts within these groups can determine their success both personally and professionally.
Social psychology continually looks at the way people comply with the influences of others within a group (Peltier, 2001). Current social psychology research, such as the work of Rule, Bisanz and Kohn (1985), as cited by Peltier (2001) have created a hierarchy of strategies that can be used within a social group to get compliance, and which are a source of power for controlling behavior within the group (social rules). Understanding the social rules and their impact on a client is an important part of a coach's work, and using the methods and models of social psychology is an important way to achieve success with clients who may or may not understand these power forces and how they effect them (Wilson, Zauner & Gallois, 2001). This, coupled with adequate training in psychology is imperative and one that is prompting reform in this new field called psychological coaching.
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