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to 7 years of age)
The child begins to represent the world with words & images. These words & images reflect increased symbolic thinking & go beyond the connection of sensory information & physical action.
(Life Span Development Ninth Edition; Santrock, John W. p49)

3. Concrete Operational Stage
(7 to 11/12 years of age)
The child can now reason logically about concrete events & classify objects into different sets.

(Life Span Development Ninth Edition; Santrock, John W. p49)

4. Formal Operational Stage
(11/12 years of age onwards)
The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic & logical ways.

LEV VYGOTSKY
Vygotsky supported the idea that culture plays a role in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, because the culture (in the large sense) that surrounds a child is thus a determining factor in that child's development, if one studies the development of this child in isolation, as Piaget does, one cannot adequately represent the process by which children actually acquire knowledge. Children are seen to learn through social interaction with more "expert" people i.e. anyone older & with more experience of life than themselves parents, older siblings etc.

There are three key features in Vygotsky's theory

Zone of proximal development
Learning through assistance this refers to the difference between what a child can do with help from others who have more experience & without help on their own. Vygotsky saw children's understanding as being open to learning through assistance though not being open to being fast-forwarded past what they are able to take in.

Scaffolding
Vygotsky suggested that children learn little if left alone to struggle, neither do they learn if a more experienced person takes over & doesn't let the child contribute or make an attempt. What is needed is appropriate support that teaches new skills. Basically the best method of helping a child to learn is the gradual withdrawal of help as a child becomes more proficient & knowledgeable itself.
McNaughton & Leyland (1990) carried out an observation study. They observed mothers helping children with a jigsaw puzzle. They found that the amount of direct help given for the more difficult pieces were higher than the help given for the less difficult pieces. Direct help was operationally defined as phrases such as "try that piece there" & less help & more encouragement were defined as phrases such as "look at that piece there" or "well done".

Language
It follows that language is the most effective means that

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