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The effect of specific punishments on criminal behavior is the subject of intensive debate. The overcrowding of prisons in the United States is but one indication that the best way to deter criminal behavior has yet to be found.

Evidence from centuries past indicates prisons with the highest degree of deplorable and inhumane conditions were not a sufficient deterrent to prevent crime. The effects of traditional retribution in the biblical form of an eye for a eye are unable to show results.

Modern monetary retribution is usually part of a packaged sentence which may include fines, probation and/or imprisonment. Therefore the specific effects of monetary retribution appear to be negligible at best and very difficult to isolate the effects of. The degree in which the threat of punishment is a deterrent is a matter of theory only as there cannot be a comparison with the effects of the opposite extreme of a zero threat.

The deterrent effects of punishment are variable according to previous experiences such as previous criminal history, certainty levels of punishment, and criminality self-perception. Research done by Pogarsky in 2006 used subjects that were convicted offenders in a highly supervised program in New Jersey. The research resulted in the conclusion that more research is needed.

There is an enormous amount of research on the subject of deterrents and effectiveness. Research and theories contradict each other much more often than they validate earlier results. Sitren and Applegate conducted research assessing college students and the likelihood of individuals cheating on exams.

The research results indicated the strong impact of a student who either personally experienced punishment avoidance or knew of others who had previously gotten away with cheating in the potential decision to cheat on an exam. The single positive factor identified in this research - social support was indicative of higher moral standards and resistance to the temptation of cheating. Once again, the conclusion was reached that results are inconsistent and indicates a need for further study.

The level of certainty that a criminal act will result in some form of punishment appears to be a deterrent within a narrow range. Research done by Yu and Liska contain results of specific levels of certainty affect criminal behavior. This research indicates a specific level of belief being a crime deterrent within a narrow range known as a tipping point. The report indicates certainty levels above

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